The first article focuses on geographical/environmental factors that may influence childhood development (Suk et al., 2016). Exposure to environmental pollutants during key periods of development can engender health problems in infants and children which can affect them into adulthood, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. These early exposures have the potential to leave children with chronic and non-communicable diseases that might not even present until later in life. The authors emphasize the need for better pollution management and a clearinghouse for tracking and assessment.
Functionally, this article is a literature review. Suk et al. (2016) draw on a wide variety of literatures to cover the various topics, since this issue involves environmental, geographic, socio-economic, and health related factors. The authors highlight the health/developmental impacts of pesticides and other toxic chemicals which can contribute to breathing and pulmonary problems. The authors also make several cogent recommendations on how to address these problems.
This article skillfully brings together issues related to geography/environment as pertains to the impact that early exposures can have both in early childhood and during the lifespan. Bringing in issues of economic and political weight also points to the interconnectedness that geography, society, and economics can have on such issues. While the authors don’t mention psychological development, one cannot deny the impact that chronic health problems can have on an individual’s mental health.
The next article also focuses on childhood but within the context of diversity issues. In their article Keener et al. (2013) examined gender segregation and sexism, seeking to explore the question of whether educators and caregivers should encourage what the authors call “other gender interactions.” Using two interaction contexts (socializing at home and working on a school project) the authors sought to assess two dimensions of sexism using the Modern Sexism Scale. The two dimensions are antagonism towards women’s demands and denial of continuing discrimination.
The authors discovered that in boys, there was an association between gender-segregated peer preferences and antagonism towards women’s demands in both home and school contexts. With girls, gender-segregated peer preferences were associated with denial of continuing discrimination in the home context. These findings suggest that encouraging other-gender interactions are a means of reducing inequality and sexism in children.
Keener et al. (2013) do a good job examining how different contexts may affect gender behaviors and attitudes. Examining only two dimensions of sexism is both a strength and a weakness for this study, as it is possible other dimensions may be more revealing given the ages of the participants but it allowed the authors to study those two dimensions more carefully. However, it is clear that gender diversity issues can affect the development of children.
Piumatti et al. (2014) studied Italian adults from the northern and southern parts of Italy, specifically Turin and Palermo, using geographic differences to examine the transition to adulthood and how the individuals coped with that transition. The authors justify the usage of two different regions of the country by asserting differences in trends regarding youth employability, higher educational attainment/achievement, and family formation process.
The authors measured several different dimensions, finding several differences between the two groups in several dimensions. Psychological (and economic) independence from their family of origin was significantly reported by the Turin participants in terms of ‘evidence’ of the transition from childhood to adulthood. Participants from Palermo emphasized the importance of personal relationships, especially in terms of perceived support.
The work of Piumatti et al. (2014) suggests that even within the confines of a single country, geography can and will have an impact on the development of an individual. As suggested by the psychological independence finding related to the Turin participants, where a person grows up can directly impact their development. However, it is possible that cultural differences have more bearing than anticipated, with non-Italian cultures adjacent to those regions having influence in unanticipated ways which affect development.
The final article, by Umaña-Taylor et al. (2014), also examines issues related to the transition from childhood to adulthood but focuses on diversity issues – in this case, racial and ethnic issues. Umaña-Taylor et al. (2014) note that ethnic and racial identity (ERI) are “central to the normative development of youth of color” and the ways in which that development transitions from childhood to adulthood (p. 21). In pursuit of clarifying issues related to ERI and development, the authors of the article essentially conducted a literature review to examine, assess, and synthesize a diverse range of resources, including identifying milestones in the development process relative to ERI and across the lifespan.
The authors note that in considering ERI and human development, there are multiple contexts which must be factored into the equation. Such contexts include bioecological and temporal perspectives which include broad elements such as community, society, and history and narrow elements such as the individual and family. The authors conclude with recommendations that future research on ERI be mindful to study the various dimensions and distinctions in ways which allow for truly valid and reliable measurement, especially with regards to construct and process.
Undertaking such an exploration, to identify and account for the weaknesses or gaps in the literature pertaining to ERI with an eye toward improving the literature and the study of ERI with regard to human growth and development, is admirable. The authors’ work sharpens the picture with regard to how race and ethnicity (and therefore diversity) influence growth and development. This is, as the authors pointed out in the article, critical for helping youth of color understand themselves and their identities.
The research included here reveals a tendency to ‘pore’ over the weaknesses in the literature. This is not inherently problematic and, in fact, shows an awareness regarding the limitations of the literature. There was also a shared emphasis on considering more closely the influence of elements such as race and gender in development. The differences more clearly emerged when considering how the first article endeavored to address elements which could be managed to improve the quality of human growth and development while the others appeared to dwell on problems in human growth and development without necessarily solutions. Regardless, the articles presented here demonstrate the applicability of geographical and environmental theories and diversity issues to human growth and development as well as the influence of socioeconomic, cultural, and temporal factors. This multidimensional reflection on human growth and development supports a lifespan perspective in so much as it demonstrates how growth and development are always happening and can be affected by any number of elements at any given time.
