Bipolar disorder is a mental disorder characterized by strong shifts and sways in mood, energy levels, activity levels and the ability to perform day-to-day activities. Bipolar disorder is also known as manic depressive disorder; the depressive episodes involved in bipolar disorder are one spectrum of its extreme moods swings, while...

The heart and the cardiovascular system represent an object of regular concerns for physicians and nurses. According to Kusumoto (2010), cardiovascular diseases frequently become a real diagnostic and treatment challenge for physicians and nurse practitioners. Any alterations that occur in the cardiovascular system of children or adults necessitate the provision...

Osteoarthritis is a common musculoskeletal disorder that can affect any joints in the human body. The pathophysiology of osteoarthritis is complex. It is known that osteoarthritis generally starts when there is an alteration in the biochemistry of the synovial fluids of the joint (Findlay, 2013). In healthy joints, the balance...

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is an obstructive lung disease that is associated with poor air flow and can be accompanied by difficulty breathing and a cough (Barnes, Drazen & Rennard, 2009). The pathophysiology behind the disease depends on the underlying cause. In emphysema, the poor air flow is a result...

This disease has several potential causes and causes various changes in urinary functioning. One of the main changes is epithelial dysfunction. This occurs when changes in the surface that line the impermeable bladder surface lead to permeability alterations (Kahn & Lombardi, 2016). This can allow potassium ions to traverse the...